Martyre hides on every street corner. Christians are fervent in prayer morning, noon and evening. Bold declarations of “Christ is Lord” in Roman arenas.
This describes a little Christians, to a little moments, during the first centuries of the Church. Despite popular depictions, this was not the norm for everyone with a first name. In fact, the standard was less heroic than one might think.
In Cultural Christians in the Early Church: A Historical and Practical Introduction to Christians in the Greco-Roman World, historian Nadya Williams proposes that many Christians during the first five centuries of the Church may have been more closely aligned with the surrounding culture than with Christ. This is not to deny the authenticity of their faith, but simply to say that Christians have always been tempted to adapt to cultural conventions.
This more nuanced and historically consistent portrait erodes notions of “Golden Age Christianity.” Like a microscope revealing cancer cells, Williams shows his readers how Christians are too often infected by the culture around us rather than influenced by the Christ within us. From Christian nationalism to the love of wealth to Christian “celebrity culture,” there is nothing new under the sun when it comes to how Christians have acclimated to cultural norms.
Horse fences
From the New Testament, Williams shows how some Christians took cultural priorities more seriously than biblical priorities. The standout case in the book of Acts is the episode of Ananias and Sapphira, affectionately dubbed by Williams as the “first cultural Christians.”
This couple, seeing the sacrificial generosity of the early believers, sought to make a similar statement, although with different motivations than their counterparts. Where other believers were motivated by gospel-based ideals of sacrificial giving, Ananias and Sapphira pursued a form of prominence based on Roman notions of beneficence. The wealthy Romans hoped to gain something in return for their gifts.
We often act with a similar mindset. The problem for this culturally Christian couple was the manipulative nature of their gift. Giving the Church part of the proceeds from the sale of land would have been commendable; presenting oneself in the same sacrificial light as others was not. Christians should give sacrificially, but never in a way that feigns sacrifice to accumulate power.
Williams goes on to provide much-needed historical wisdom on issues related to the consumption of food and wine (Chapter 2), as well as the realities of sexual relationships in the Greco-Roman world and their impact on the Church (Chapter 3). . It seems that the first Christians carried with them some of their Roman baggage, notably ritual drunkenness and pagan worship practices. Paul’s exhortations to the Church, in 1 Corinthians and elsewhere, make it clear that Christians were trying to cross the line when it came to food and drink, sometimes appearing more Roman than Christian.
When it comes to sexuality, of course, nothing could be more countercultural than Christian sexual ethics. Christians were expected to be faithful to their spouse or remain single. In contrast, Roman men could do almost anything they desired sexually without penalty. In major cities such as Rome, Corinth, and Ephesus, sectarian prostitution was the norm, not to mention that slaves were considered property to be used sexually at will. Some may say that we live in a sexualized culture today (which is surely true), but, in many ways, ancient Rome makes the modern West look like a PG-rated cartoon.
Williams then turns the historical page to consider post-New Testament Christians and the cultural sins present in the early centuries. An interesting case involves Pliny the Younger, a Roman governor who interviewed several Christians to better understand the supposed threat they posed to his region. When questioned, it seems that some Christians were quick to reassure Pliny by renouncing their faith. Others persisted, however, leading Pliny to seek the wisdom of Emperor Trajan on how to proceed.
The famous exchange between Pliny and Trajan represents a key non-Christian historical source on the nature of Christianity in the 2nd century, attesting to the reality that some were leaving the Church. Stories of renunciation unfolded over the following decades, during various eras of persecution of Christians, and later leaders such as Cyprian of Carthage explained how “fallen” Christians should be reintegrated into the Church.
This historical episode lends itself to useful information about “evangelicalism” and associated movements. How might Christians today address those who are leaving the Church? Is the problem the faith, the clergy or something else? To what extent do modern conventions such as social media play a role? It is worth considering recent work on the rise of the religiously unaffiliated. “none” And “unverted” alongside the stories of their precursors in the days of the early Church.
According to Williams, Christians in the Constantinian and post-Constantinian eras did not fare much better when it came to cultural sins. Scholars of late antiquity are not surprised by violence between Christian groups or even by the power and manipulation used to influence church decisions. Modern Christians, however, should be shocked and reminded that such attitudes are contrary to Christian virtue.
Often what appeared to be disagreements over theology and practice were perhaps more cultural than theological. Advocating violence or manipulation as a “means to an end” is contrary to Christian practice – or should be, as Williams points out. She notes: “Sometimes the divisions are less about good theology than about appearances. And these kinds of divisions should worry and condemn us. To this I can only add, amen!
I was particularly encouraged by the connections Williams draws between the Church of the 4th and 5th centuries and the dynamics of Christian nationalism and celebrity culture today. Many turned to Augustine City of God as a critique of Roman culture and its parallels today, but Williams uses Augustine as a scalpel to delicately remove a cancerous tumor. Augustine minces no words about the failures of Rome and the absurdity of Roman religion. In summary, placing one’s ultimate hope in an earthly realm is foolhardy, to say the least. Although heavenly citizens care about the well-being of the earthly realm, they are realistic about its prospects and longevity.
Most surprising about this book is how Williams uses early monastic movements to draw conclusions about the dangers posed by Christian celebrities. As many individuals fled to the deserts of Egypt and the surrounding region in the late 4th century, their spiritual fame and status attracted much attention. As Williams shows, these spiritual visits by desert monks were reminiscent of visits to pagan shrines.
The desert monks also represent object lessons for us today. Many today criticize the gathered Church for stifling individualized spiritual experience. But whatever spiritual knowledge we receive from the early monks must be used to serve God’s people.
No golden age
Cultural Christians in the Early Church gives readers a fantastic example of how we should learn from this pivotal period in Christian history. The book is not a detailed introduction to early Christianity. It is, however, a powerful statement regarding human nature and the eternal challenge of living according to Christ. Christian doctrine addresses issues in our culture, whether in the first century or the 21st.
The book and its outlook are not pessimistic but realistic. Williams brings to it his knowledge of late antiquity, his dedication as a follower of Christ, and his observations on modern evangelicalism. There were times in the book when I wished that Williams, rather than ending most of the chapters with various connections to modern evangelical life and thought, would have let readers draw their own conclusions. However, overall, this work levels the playing field for Christians today. Williams does not excuse these “cultural sins,” but rather does the delicate historical work of helping readers understand how we are just as prone to them as our ancestors.
Rather than idolizing the early Church, perhaps we should take some sober lessons and apply them to our experience today. Williams’s work is far from an abstract exercise in social history; it presents “usable history” of the best kind.
Acknowledging our cultural sins should bring us back to the reverse kingdom ethic of Jesus. Truly his kingdom is not of this world. There is no golden age of the Church in history; only the one to come in eternity.
Coleman Ford is assistant professor of humanities at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. He is the co-founder of the Center for Ancient Christian Studies and is a member of the Center for Pastor Theologians. He is the author of Formed in His Image: A Guide to Christian Formation.
